Earth Observation for Sustainable Infrastructure: A Review

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Song Y., Wu P. Earth Observation for Sustainable Infrastructure: A Review. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(8):1528. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13081528

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"Earth observation has great potentials for sustainable infrastructure development. EOSI benefits about 85% of infrastructure influenced SDGs and 61% of all 169 SDG targets, but Earth observation is only implemented in 15% of infrastructure influenced SDG targets, and 70% of infrastructure influenced targets that can be directly or indirectly derived from Earth observation data have not been included in current SDG indicators."

Supplementary Information for Figure 3.

The relationship between Earth observation for sustainable infrastructure (EOSI) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Notes:

*: The infrastructure influence includes: direct influence (A), indirect influence (B), and irrelevant influence (blank).

**: The Earth observation for sustainable infrastructure (EOSI) for assessing and addressing infrastructure influenced SDGs includes: available indicator (1), direct indicator (2), indirect indicator (3), and irrelevant indicator (4).

***: The Explanation in this study focuses on assessing and addressing sustainable infrastructure issues using earth observation technology. More details about the direct and indirect influence of infrastructure on SDGs have been listed in Thacker et al (2019).

SDGs SDG targets Energy Transport Water Solid waste Digital communications Explanation *** References
Influence * EOSI ** Influence EOSI Influence EOSI Influence EOSI Influence EOSI
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere 1.1. By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day                      
1.2. By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 Poverty is the severe deprivation of basic human needs in fuel, transport, water, sanitation and information (United Nations 1995; Thacker et al 2019). Earth observation (EO) has been used for identifying poverty population and assessing and improving the resources for these needs (Watmough et al 2019). The cases include:
(1) Remote sensing data is used to identify the different types of natural resources for the fuel for heating, cooking and lighting in poverty regions (Okwi et al 2007; Watmough et al 2019).
(2) Spatial network models have been widely applied in population accessibility analysis using transport in poverty and rural areas (Gannon et al 1997; Velaga et al 2012; Song et al 2018).
(3) EO can support accurate and efficient water resource managemnt (Garcia et al 2016).
(4) EO is used for solid waste management, disposal site selection, and assessing impacts of solid waste on human health (Mohammedshum 2014).
(5) EO and mobile big data are used to investigate the digital communication conditions in rural areas (Taubenbock et al 2018).
(1) United Nations. Report of the world summit for social development. United Nations, Copenhagen, 1995.
(2) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
(3) Watmough, Gary R., Charlotte LJ Marcinko, Clare Sullivan, Kevin Tschirhart, Patrick K. Mutuo, Cheryl A. Palm, and Jens-Christian Svenning. "Socioecologically informed use of remote sensing data to predict rural household poverty." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 4 (2019): 1213-1218.
(4) Okwi, Paul O., Godfrey Ndeng'e, Patti Kristjanson, Mike Arunga, An Notenbaert, Abisalom Omolo, Norbert Henninger, Todd Benson, Patrick Kariuki, and John Owuor. "Spatial determinants of poverty in rural Kenya." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, no. 43 (2007): 16769-16774.
(5) Gannon, Colin A., and Zhi Liu. Poverty and transport. No. TWU-30. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1997.
(6) Velaga, Nagendra R., Mark Beecroft, John D. Nelson, David Corsar, and Peter Edwards. "Transport poverty meets the digital divide: accessibility and connectivity in rural communities." Journal of Transport Geography 21 (2012): 102-112.
(7) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
(8) Garcia, Luis, Diego Rodríguez, Marcus Wijnen, and Inge Pakulski, eds. Earth observation for water resources management: current Use and future opportunities for the water sector. The World Bank, (2016).
(9) Mohammedshum, A. A., M. A. Gebresilassiea, C. M. Rulindaa, G. H. Kahsaya, and M. S. Tesfay. "Application of geographic information system and remotesensing in effective solid waste disposal sites selection in wukro town, tigray, ethiopia." International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing & Spatial Information Sciences (2014).
(10) Taubenbock, Hannes, Jeroen Staab, Xiao Xiang Zhu, Christian Geiß, Stefan Dech, and Michael Wurm. "Are the poor digitally left behind? Indications of urban divides based on remote sensing and twitter data." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 7, no. 8 (2018): 304.
1.3. Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable     B 4         B 4
1.4. By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 Basic services include all infrastructure sectors, and the quality and access to the infrastructure can be assessed using EO (Koks et al 2019; Estoque 2020; Im 2020).
(1) Koks, Elco E., Julie Rozenberg, Conrad Zorn, Mersedeh Tariverdi, Michalis Vousdoukas, S. A. Fraser, J. W. Hall, and Stephane Hallegatte. "A global multi-hazard risk analysis of road and railway infrastructure assets." Nature communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 1-11.
(2) Im, Jungho. "Earth observations and geographic information science for sustainable development goals." GIScience & Remote Sensing (2020).
(3) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
1.5. By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters B 2 B 2 A 2 B 2 B 2 EO has been widely applied in predicting, assessing, addressing natural hazards, and examining hazard risks for infrastructure (Wasowski et al 2017; Koks et al 2019).
(1) Wasowski, Janusz, Fabio Bovenga, Raffaele Nutricato, Davide Oscar Nitti, and Maria Teresa Chiaradia. "High resolution satellite multi-temporal interferometry for monitoring infrastructure instability hazards." Innovative infrastructure solutions 2, no. 1 (2017): 1-9.
(2) Koks, Elco E., Julie Rozenberg, Conrad Zorn, Mersedeh Tariverdi, Michalis Vousdoukas, S. A. Fraser, J. W. Hall, and Stephane Hallegatte. "A global multi-hazard risk analysis of road and railway infrastructure assets." Nature communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 1-11.
1.a. Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions                      
1.b. Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions                      
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture 2.1. By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round B 2 B 2 B 2         EO provides timely, full coverage, and multi-scale data for the energy and water infrastructure of food systems, and transport infrastructure for accessing food and nutrition (Brown et al 2014; Karthikeyan et al 2020; Koppa et al 2020; Vittuari et al 2020).
(1) Karthikeyan, L., Ila Chawla, and Ashok K. Mishra. "A review of remote sensing applications in agriculture for food security: Crop growth and yield, irrigation, and crop losses." Journal of Hydrology 586 (2020): 124905.
(2) Koppa, Akash, and Mekonnen Gebremichael. "Improving the Applicability of Hydrologic Models for Food–Energy–Water Nexus Studies Using Remote Sensing Data." Remote Sensing 12, no. 4 (2020): 599.
(3) Brown, Molly E., Kathryn Grace, Gerald Shively, Kiersten B. Johnson, and Mark Carroll. "Using satellite remote sensing and household survey data to assess human health and nutrition response to environmental change." Population and environment 36, no. 1 (2014): 48-72.
(4) Vittuari, Matteo, Marco Pagani, Thomas G. Johnson, and Fabio De Menna. "Impacts and costs of embodied and nutritional energy of food waste in the US food system: Distribution and consumption (Part B)." Journal of Cleaner Production 252 (2020): 119857.
2.2. By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons B 2 B 2 B 2         See 2.1.
2.3. By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment B 2 B 2         B 2 Thacker et al (2019) has analysed that improved infrastructure systems, including electrification, transport network, and digital communications providing information and knowledge to farmers, benefit for the growth of agricultural productivity according to relevant studies (Bakht 2000; Llanto 2012; Deichmann et al 2016). EO techniques can estimate and compare the agricultural products before and after the improvement of infrastructure systems (Abdullahi et al 2015). The integration of EO and improved infrastructure systems enables the precision agriculture (Seelan et al 2003; Liaghat et al 2010; Mulla 2013).
(1) Llanto, Gilberto M. The impact of infrastructure on agricultural productivity. No. 2012-12. PIDS Discussion Paper Series, 2012.
(2) Bakht, Zaid. "Poverty Impact of Rural Roads and Markets Improvement & Maintenance Project of Bangladesh." India Habitat Centre, New Delhi (2000).
(3) Deichmann, Uwe, Aparajita Goyal, and Deepak Mishra. Will digital technologies transform agriculture in developing countries?. The World Bank, 2016.
(4) Abdullahi, Halimatu Sadiyah, F. Mahieddine, and Ray E. Sheriff. "Technology impact on agricultural productivity: A review of precision agriculture using unmanned aerial vehicles." In International conference on wireless and satellite systems, pp. 388-400. Springer, Cham, 2015.
(5) Seelan, Santhosh K., Soizik Laguette, Grant M. Casady, and George A. Seielstad. "Remote sensing applications for precision agriculture: A learning community approach." Remote sensing of environment 88, no. 1-2 (2003): 157-169.
(6) Liaghat, Shohreh, and Siva Kumar Balasundram. "A review: The role of remote sensing in precision agriculture." American journal of agricultural and biological sciences 5, no. 1 (2010): 50-55.
(7) Mulla, David J. "Twenty five years of remote sensing in precision agriculture: Key advances and remaining knowledge gaps." Biosystems engineering 114, no. 4 (2013): 358-371.
(8) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
2.4. By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality B 2 B 2 A 2 B 2 B 2 Sustainable food systems require all sectors of sustainable infrastructure for ensuring food production and decreasing impacts of natural hazards (Thacker et al 2019). EO has been widely applied in assessing the agricultural productions, evaluating ecosystems, monitoring natural hazards, and investigating land and soil quality (Weiss et al 2020; Benami et al 2021).
(1) Weiss, Marie, Frédéric Jacob, and G. Duveiller. "Remote sensing for agricultural applications: A meta-review." Remote Sensing of Environment 236 (2020): 111402.
(2) Benami, Elinor, Zhenong Jin, Michael R. Carter, Aniruddha Ghosh, Robert J. Hijmans, Andrew Hobbs, Benson Kenduiywo, and David B. Lobell. "Uniting remote sensing, crop modelling and economics for agricultural risk management." Nature Reviews Earth & Environment (2021): 1-20.
(3) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
2.5. By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed                 B 3 Digital communication infrastructure can benefit the equitable access to knowledge and information sharing, and EO can be used to evaluate the biodiversity of ecosystems for achieving this target (Vihervaara et al 2017; Wang et al 2019).
(1) Vihervaara, Petteri, Ari-Pekka Auvinen, Laura Mononen, Markus Törmä, Petri Ahlroth, Saku Anttila, Kristin Böttcher et al. "How essential biodiversity variables and remote sensing can help national biodiversity monitoring." Global Ecology and Conservation 10 (2017): 43-59.
(2) Wang, Ran, and John A. Gamon. "Remote sensing of terrestrial plant biodiversity." Remote Sensing of Environment 231 (2019): 111218.
2.a. Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries                 B 3 Digital communication technologies can support international collaborations and EO can be used to evaluate rural infrastructure performance and agriculture productivity (Arastounia 2015).
(1) Arastounia, Mostafa. "Automated recognition of railroad infrastructure in rural areas from LiDAR data." Remote Sensing 7, no. 11 (2015): 14916-14938.
2.b. Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round                      
2.c. Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility     B 2         B 2 Transport and digital communication infrastructure can improve farmers' access to global market and EO can support to monitor the global storage of agricultural products (Weiss et al 2020; Benami et al 2021).
(1) Weiss, Marie, Frédéric Jacob, and G. Duveiller. "Remote sensing for agricultural applications: A meta-review." Remote Sensing of Environment 236 (2020): 111402.
(2) Benami, Elinor, Zhenong Jin, Michael R. Carter, Aniruddha Ghosh, Robert J. Hijmans, Andrew Hobbs, Benson Kenduiywo, and David B. Lobell. "Uniting remote sensing, crop modelling and economics for agricultural risk management." Nature Reviews Earth & Environment (2021): 1-20.
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages 3.1. By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births B 2 B 2 B 2         EO can directly monitor and evaluate energy services (Chrysoulakis et al 2018), transport accessibilty (Song et al 2018), and water infrastructure (Cheng et al 2018), which directly impact the performance of healthcare systems for residents, especially for the poverty, rural, and remote communities (Lilford et al 2019; Friesen et al 2020).
(1) Chrysoulakis, Nektarios, Sue Grimmond, Christian Feigenwinter, Fredrik Lindberg, Jean-Philippe Gastellu-Etchegorry, Mattia Marconcini, Zina Mitraka et al. "Urban energy exchanges monitoring from space." Scientific reports 8, no. 1 (2018): 1-8.
(2) Chen, Yiheng, and Dawei Han. "Water quality monitoring in smart city: A pilot project." Automation in Construction 89 (2018): 307-316.
(3) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
(4) Lilford, Richard, Catherine Kyobutungi, Robert Ndugwa, Jo Sartori, Samuel I. Watson, Richard Sliuzas, Monika Kuffer, Timothy Hofer, Joao Porto de Albuquerque, and Alex Ezeh. "Because space matters: conceptual framework to help distinguish slum from non-slum urban areas." BMJ global health 4, no. 2 (2019): e001267.
(5) Friesen, John, Victoria Friesen, Ingo Dietrich, and Peter F. Pelz. "Slums, space, and state of health—a link between settlement morphology and health data." International journal of environmental research and public health 17, no. 6 (2020): 2022.
3.2. By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births B 2 B 2 B 2         See 3.1.
3.3. By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases B 2 B 2 B 2     B 2 In addition to the explanation in 3.1, EO supports digital communications for accessing to communities to deliver disease prevention actions (Taubenbock et al 2018; Salam 2020).
(1) Salam, Abdul. Internet of things for sustainable community development. Springer International Publishing, 2020.
(2) Taubenbock, Hannes, Jeroen Staab, Xiao Xiang Zhu, Christian Geiß, Stefan Dech, and Michael Wurm. "Are the poor digitally left behind? Indications of urban divides based on remote sensing and twitter data." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 7, no. 8 (2018): 304.
3.4. By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being B 2 B 2 B 2     B 2 EO supports the monitoring and assessment of energy, transport, water and digital communications for increasing the number of hospitals and people accessibility to hospitals (Chen et al 2018; Chrysoulakis et al 2018; Song et al 2018; Taubenbock et al 2018; Salam 2020), which helps reduce premature mortality.
(1) Chrysoulakis, Nektarios, Sue Grimmond, Christian Feigenwinter, Fredrik Lindberg, Jean-Philippe Gastellu-Etchegorry, Mattia Marconcini, Zina Mitraka et al. "Urban energy exchanges monitoring from space." Scientific reports 8, no. 1 (2018): 1-8.
(2) Chen, Yiheng, and Dawei Han. "Water quality monitoring in smart city: A pilot project." Automation in Construction 89 (2018): 307-316.
(3) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
(4) Salam, Abdul. Internet of things for sustainable community development. Springer International Publishing, 2020.
(5) Taubenbock, Hannes, Jeroen Staab, Xiao Xiang Zhu, Christian Geiß, Stefan Dech, and Michael Wurm. "Are the poor digitally left behind? Indications of urban divides based on remote sensing and twitter data." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 7, no. 8 (2018): 304.
3.5. Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol                 B 4  
3.6. By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents     A 2 B 2     B 2 EO and the integration with other emerging technologies, such as social media data and smart sensors, can be used to identify and predict high-risk roads of traffic accidents (Sohn et al 2003; Zhang et al 2019; Perez et al 2019).
(1) Zhang, Yang, Yiwen Lu, Daniel Zhang, Lanyu Shang, and Dong Wang. "Risksens: A multi-view learning approach to identifying risky traffic locations in intelligent transportation systems using social and remote sensing." In 2018 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), pp. 1544-1553. IEEE, 2018.
(2) Perez, Juan Antonio, Gil Rito Gonçalves, José Manuel Galván Rangel, and Pedro Fuentes Ortega. "Accuracy and effectiveness of orthophotos obtained from low cost UASs video imagery for traffic accident scenes documentation." Advances in Engineering Software 132 (2019): 47-54.
(3) Sohn, So Young, and Sung Ho Lee. "Data fusion, ensemble and clustering to improve the classification accuracy for the severity of road traffic accidents in Korea." Safety Science 41, no. 1 (2003): 1-14.
3.7. By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes     B 4         B 4
3.8. Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all B 2 B 2             EO is used to estimate population accessibility to healthcare services and the coverage of medical resources (Song et al 2018; Pu et al 2020).
(1) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
(2) Pu, Qiang, Eun-Hye Yoo, David H. Rothstein, Sarah Cairo, and Luc Malemo. "Improving the spatial accessibility of healthcare in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo." Applied Geography 121 (2020): 102262.
3.9. By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1     The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Crude death rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution", which is the sixth indicator of SDG indicator 3.9.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
3.a. Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate                 B 4  
3.b. Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and non-communicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to medicines for all B 3 B 3             EO supports energy systems for the development of medicines and vaccines, and transport infrastructure for rural and remote communities to access medicines and vaccines (World Health Organisation et al 2009; Thacker et al 2019).
(1) World Health Organisation, United Nations Children Fund, World Bank. State of the world's vaccines and immunisation. Geneva. (2009)
(2) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
3.c. Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States                 B 2 EO is used to analyse spatial distributions and the availability of medical staff (Walter 2018).
(1) Walter, Torsten Figueiredo. "The spatial distribution of health services in Zambia." (2018).
3.d. Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks                 B 3 EO helps predict global health risks (Hay et al 2006; Adimi et al 2010; Song et al 2016) and digital communications enable knowledge and information sharing.
(1) Song, Yongze, Yong Ge, Jinfeng Wang, Zhoupeng Ren, Yilan Liao, and Junhuan Peng. "Spatial distribution estimation of malaria in northern China and its scenarios in 2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050." Malaria journal 15, no. 1 (2016): 1-16.
(2) Adimi, Farida, Radina P. Soebiyanto, Najibullah Safi, and Richard Kiang. "Towards malaria risk prediction in Afghanistan using remote sensing." Malaria Journal 9, no. 1 (2010): 1-11.
(3) Hay, Simon I., and Robert W. Snow. "The Malaria Atlas Project: developing global maps of malaria risk." PLoS Med 3, no. 12 (2006): e473.
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all 4.1. By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes B 2 B 2 B 2     B 2 EO provides data of the availability of electricity, transport accessibility, water, and digital communications for improving the quality of education (Briceno et al 2004; Chaklader et al 2013; Queiroz et al 2020; Ergüzen et al 2014).
(1) Queiroz, Marcelo Victor Alves Bila, Raquel Menezes Bezerra Sampaio, and Luciano Menezes Bezerra Sampaio. "Dynamic efficiency of primary education in Brazil: Socioeconomic and infrastructure influence on school performance." Socio-Economic Planning Sciences 70 (2020): 100738.
(2) Ergüzen, Atilla, Erdal Erdal, Mahmut Ünver, and Ahmet Özcan. "Improving Technological Infrastructure of Distance Education through Trustworthy Platform-Independent Virtual Software Application Pools." Applied Sciences 11, no. 3 (2021): 1214.
(3) Chaklader, Sayem, Junaed Alam, Monirul Islam, and Ali Shihab Sabbir. "Bridging Digital Divide:‘Village wireless LAN’, a low cost network infrastructure solution for digital communication, information dissemination & education in rural Bangladesh." In 2013 2nd International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering (ICAEE), pp. 277-281. IEEE, 2013.
(4) Briceno, Cecilia, Antonio Estache, and Nemat T. Shafik. Infrastructure services in developing countries: access, quality, costs, and policy reform. The World Bank, 2004.
4.2. By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education B 2 B 2 B 2     B 2 See 4.1.
4.3. By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university B 2 B 2 B 2     B 2 See 4.1.
4.4. By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship B 2 B 2 B 2     B 2 See 4.1. In addition, the improvement of the quality of education benefits for the increase of employment (Bussemakers et al 2017).
(1) Bussemakers, Carlijn, Kars van Oosterhout, Gerbert Kraaykamp, and Niels Spierings. "Women’s worldwide education–employment connection: a multilevel analysis of the moderating impact of economic, political, and cultural contexts." World Development 99 (2017): 28-41.
4.5. By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations B 2 B 2 B 2         EO provides data and tools for assessing the inequality of energy, transport, and water for the vulnerable (Song et al 2018; Qi et al 2021). The improvement of the infrastructure services can provide more opportunties of education and jobs for girls, disabilities, indigenous peoples and children.
(1) Qi, Bingxin, Xuantong Wang, and Paul Sutton. "Can Nighttime Satellite Imagery Inform Our Understanding of Education Inequality?." Remote Sensing 13, no. 5 (2021): 843.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
4.6. By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy B 2     B 2     B 2 EO provides data of energy and water for education (See 4.1 and 4.5), and digital communications enable the provision of knowledge and information for literacy and numeracy (Thacker et al 2019).
(1) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
4.7. By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture's contribution to sustainable development                      
4.a. Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all B 2     B 2 B 2 B 2 See 4.1 and 4.5.
4.b. By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries                      
4.c. By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States                 B 4  
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls 5.1. End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere B 2     B 2         Rural women and girls spend a large amount of time in cooking, boiling water, and feeding animals, which make them miss education and careers. EO provides data and tools to improve the availability of local fuel energy and water (Okwi et al 2007; Watmough et al 2019; Koppa et al 2020).
(1) Watmough, Gary R., Charlotte LJ Marcinko, Clare Sullivan, Kevin Tschirhart, Patrick K. Mutuo, Cheryl A. Palm, and Jens-Christian Svenning. "Socioecologically informed use of remote sensing data to predict rural household poverty." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 4 (2019): 1213-1218.
(2) Okwi, Paul O., Godfrey Ndeng'e, Patti Kristjanson, Mike Arunga, An Notenbaert, Abisalom Omolo, Norbert Henninger, Todd Benson, Patrick Kariuki, and John Owuor. "Spatial determinants of poverty in rural Kenya." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, no. 43 (2007): 16769-16774.
(3) Koppa, Akash, and Mekonnen Gebremichael. "Improving the Applicability of Hydrologic Models for Food–Energy–Water Nexus Studies Using Remote Sensing Data." Remote Sensing 12, no. 4 (2020): 599.
5.2. Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation B 2     B 2         See 5.1.
5.3. Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation                      
5.4. Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate B 2     B 2         See 5.1.
5.5. Ensure women's full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life B 2 B 2 B 2         See 5.1.
5.6. Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences     B 2             EO supports transport infrastructure for rural and remote communities to access public facilities and health care services (Song et al 2018).
(1) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
5.a. Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws                    
5.b. Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women                 A 4  
5.c. Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels                      
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all 6.1. By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all B 2 B 2 A 2         EO has been applied in monitoring and assessment of water quality and drought (Asbury et al 2019). Improving water infrastructure is needed to the equitable access to safe and affordable water. EO for monitoring energy systems, including electricity, are necessary for the extraction, transportation, distribution, collection, treatment and end use of water (United Nations, https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/water_and_energy.shtml). Energy systems are also required to reduce the use and pollution of water for safe water resources (Thatcher et al 2019). The quantity and quality of transport infrastructure, which have been monitored, assessed, and predicted using EO at multiple scales (Song et al 2018a; 2018b; 2021), can impact the people's access to water, since truck transportation is a critical approach of delivery in rural, remote, and drought areas where water is limited.
(1) Asbury, Zachary, and Mohamed H. Aly. "A geospatial study of the drought impact on surface water reservoirs: study cases from Texas, USA." GIScience & Remote Sensing 56, no. 6 (2019): 894-910.
(2) Song, Yongze, Graeme Wright, Peng Wu, Dominique Thatcher, Tom McHugh, Qindong Li, Shuk Jin Li, and Xiangyu Wang. "Segment-based spatial analysis for assessing road infrastructure performance using monitoring observations and remote sensing data." Remote Sensing 10, no. 11 (2018): 1696.
(3) Song, Yongze, Dominique Thatcher, Qindong Li, Tom McHugh, and Peng Wu. "Developing sustainable road infrastructure performance indicators using a model-driven fuzzy spatial multi-criteria decision making method." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2021): 110538.
(4) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
6.2. By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations B 2 B 2 A 2         EO can monitor ecosystems that can dilute effluent from sewage and livestock, and decrease waterborne disease transmission (Hsu et al 2017; Mulligan et al 2020). EO also support the monitoring, assessment and improvement of energy for reducing water usage and pollution (Masoud 2020), and transport accessibility to healthcare services.
(1) Mulligan, Mark, Arnout van Soesbergen, David G. Hole, Thomas M. Brooks, Sophia Burke, and Jon Hutton. "Mapping nature's contribution to SDG 6 and implications for other SDGs at policy relevant scales." Remote Sensing of Environment 239 (2020): 111671.
(2) Hsu, Tsung-Ta David, William J. Mitsch, Jay F. Martin, and Jiyoung Lee. "Towards sustainable protection of public health: The role of an urban wetland as a frontline safeguard of pathogen and antibiotic resistance spread." Ecological Engineering 108 (2017): 547-555.
(3) Masoud, Alaa A. "Renewable energy and water sustainability: lessons learnt from TUISR19." (2020): 1-4.
6.3. By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally B 1     A 1 A 1     The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Proportion of safely treated domestic wastewater flow", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 6.3.1, and "Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 6.3.2 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
6.4. By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity B 1     A 1         The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 6.4.2 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
6.5. By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate         A 1         The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Degree of integrated water resources management implementation", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 6.5.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
6.6. By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes B 1     A 1         The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Nationally derived proportion of water bodies with good quality", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 6.6.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
6.a. By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies     B 2         B 2 EO supports both physical and virtual access to local communities through transport (Song et al 2018) and digital communications (Abdelwahab et al 2014), respectively.
(1) Abdelwahab, Sherif, Bechir Hamdaoui, Mohsen Guizani, and Ammar Rayes. "Enabling smart cloud services through remote sensing: An internet of everything enabler." IEEE Internet of Things Journal 1, no. 3 (2014): 276-288.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
6.b. Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management     B 2         B 2 See 6.a.
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all 7.1. By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services A 1 B 1             The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Proportion of population with access to electricity, by urban/rural", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 7.1.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
7.2. By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix A 2                 EO is an effective tool for monitoring the availability of renewable energy, such as biomass sources (Valbuena et al 2019; Chirici 2020).
(1) Valbuena, Ruben, Ana Hernando, Jose Antonio Manzanera, Eric B. Görgens, Danilo RA Almeida, Carlos A. Silva, and Antonio García-Abril. "Evaluating observed versus predicted forest biomass: R-squared, index of agreement or maximal information coefficient?." European Journal of Remote Sensing 52, no. 1 (2019): 345-358.
(2) Chirici, Gherardo. "Earth observation for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals: the role of the European Journal of Remote Sensing." European Journal of Remote Sensing 53, no. 1 (2020): i-ii.
7.3. By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency A 2 B 2             EO can monitoring the reduction of transport and industry related carbon emissions for improving energy efficiency (Duren et al 2012; Wang et al 2020).
(1) Duren, Riley M., and Charles E. Miller. "Measuring the carbon emissions of megacities." Nature Climate Change 2, no. 8 (2012): 560-562.
(2) Wang, Gengzhe, Qi Han, and Bauke de Vries. "A geographic carbon emission estimating framework on the city scale." Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020): 118793.
7.a. By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology                 B 4  
7.b. By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support A 2                 EO can be used for the estimation of the potential and the site selection of renewable energy, especially for developing countries (Jangid et al 2016; Gašparović et al 2019; Habib et al 2020).
(1) Habib, Shaimaa Magdy, Ahmed El-Raie Emam Suliman, Alaa Hassan Al Nahry, and Eid Nasr Abd El Rahman. "Spatial modeling for the optimum site selection of solar photovoltaics power plant in the northwest coast of Egypt." Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 18 (2020): 100313.
(2) Gašparović, Iva, and Mateo Gašparović. "Determining optimal solar power plant locations based on remote sensing and GIS methods: A case study from Croatia." Remote Sensing 11, no. 12 (2019): 1481.
(3) Jangid, Jayant, Apurba Kumar Bera, Manoj Joseph, Vishal Singh, T. P. Singh, B. K. Pradhan, and Sandipan Das. "Potential zones identification for harvesting wind energy resources in desert region of India–A multi criteria evaluation approach using remote sensing and GIS." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016): 1-10.
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all 8.1. Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 EO is used to monitor and assess the quality of infrastructure (Song et al 2021; See 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 4.1, and 5.1), and the quality of all sectors of infrastructure is directly associated with national economic growth (Thatcher et al 2019).
(1) Song, Yongze, Dominique Thatcher, Qindong Li, Tom McHugh, and Peng Wu. "Developing sustainable road infrastructure performance indicators using a model-driven fuzzy spatial multi-criteria decision making method." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2021): 110538.
(2) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
8.2. Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 See 8.1
8.3. Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 All sectors of infrastructure systems are required for improving employment and quality of life, and EO can directly mintor, assess and improve the quantity and quality of infrastructure services (Thacker et al 2019).
(1) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
(2) Li, G., and Q. Weng. "Measuring the quality of life in city of Indianapolis by integration of remote sensing and census data." International Journal of Remote Sensing 28, no. 2 (2007): 249-267.
8.4. Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, with developed countries taking the lead B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 EO provides data for all sectors of infrastructure for improving resource efficiency (Field et al 1995; Nelson et al 2001).
(1) Field, Christopher B., James T. Randerson, and Carolyn M. Malmström. "Global net primary production: combining ecology and remote sensing." Remote sensing of Environment 51, no. 1 (1995): 74-88.
(2) Nelson, M., H. T. Odum, M. T. Brown, and A. Alling. “Living off the land”: resource efficiency of wetland wastewater treatment." Advances in Space Research 27, no. 9 (2001): 1547-1556.
8.5. By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value     B 2             EO for sustainable transport infrastructure and accessibility can impact opportunities and equality of employment (Johnson et al 2017).
(1) Johnson, Daniel, Marco Ercolani, and Peter Mackie. "Econometric analysis of the link between public transport accessibility and employment." Transport Policy 60 (2017): 1-9.
8.6. By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training     B 2             See 8.5.
8.7. Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms                      
8.8. Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment                      
8.9. By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products                      
8.10. Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all               B 4    
8.a. Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries                      
8.b. By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization                      
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation 9.1. Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 EO can be used to assess the performance of infrastructure, investigate factors of infrastructure, and quantify indicators of SDG 9.1, such as the "rural population who live within 2 km of an all-season road" (Ilie et al 2019; Jia et al 2020).
(1) Ilie, Codrina Maria, Maria Antonia Brovelli, and Serena Coetzee. "Monitoring SDG 9 with global open data and open software–A case study from rural Tanzania." In ISPRS Geospatial Week 2019, vol. 42, no. 2/W13, pp. 1551-1558. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 2019.
(2) Jia, Zhanhai, Mingquan Wu, Zheng Niu, Bin Tang, and Yuxuan Mu. "Monitoring of UN sustainable development goal SDG-9.1. 1: study of Algerian “Belt and Road” expressways constructed by China." PeerJ 8 (2020): e8953.
9.2. Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry's share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries B 3 B 3 B 3 B 3 B 3 Investment of infrastructure sectors benefits for the increase of employment (See 8.1) and manufacturing added value and employment.
9.3. Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets     B 3         B 3 EO supports both physical and virtual access to markets for small-scale enterprises through transport (Song et al 2018) and digital communications (Abdelwahab et al 2014), respectively.
(1) Abdelwahab, Sherif, Bechir Hamdaoui, Mohsen Guizani, and Ammar Rayes. "Enabling smart cloud services through remote sensing: An internet of everything enabler." IEEE Internet of Things Journal 1, no. 3 (2014): 276-288.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
9.4. By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities A 1 A 1 A 1 A 1 A 1 The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "CO2 emissions per unit of manufacturing value added", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 9.4.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
9.5. Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending                 B 4  
9.a. Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 The application of EO for infrastructure can support infrastructure and technological development in African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States. EO also can monitor, assess, and predict natural hazards to infrastructure (Koks et al 2019).
(1) Koks, Elco E., Julie Rozenberg, Conrad Zorn, Mersedeh Tariverdi, Michalis Vousdoukas, S. A. Fraser, J. W. Hall, and Stephane Hallegatte. "A global multi-hazard risk analysis of road and railway infrastructure assets." Nature communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 1-11.
9.b. Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 Sustainable infrastructure, which can be monitored, assessed, and improved using EO, enables technology development and value addition (Arowosafe et al 2015; Diaz-Sarachaga et al 2017).
(1) Diaz-Sarachaga, Jose Manuel, Daniel Jato-Espino, and Daniel Castro-Fresno. "Methodology for the development of a new Sustainable Infrastructure Rating System for Developing Countries (SIRSDEC)." Environmental Science & Policy 69 (2017): 65-72.
(2) Arowosafe, Oluwumi, Boris Ceranic, and Angela Dean. "A sustainable infrastructure delivery model: value added strategy in the Nigerian construction industry." Proceedings 31st Annual ARCOM Conference, 2015.
9.c. Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020 B 4             A 4  
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries 10.1. By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the population at a rate higher than the national average B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 The improvement of infrastructure services can decrease inequalities (Chatterjee et al 2012; Yang et al 2020; Zolfaghari et al 2020; Medeiros et al 2021). EO has been widely applied in inequailty assessment (Wu et al 2018), high-resolution population estimation (Wu et al 2025), poverty identification (Watmough et al 2019), and quantity and quality assessemnt of infrastructure (Oshri et al 2018).
(1) Chatterjee, Santanu, and Stephen J. Turnovsky. "Infrastructure and inequality." European Economic Review 56, no. 8 (2012): 1730-1745.
(2) Zolfaghari, Mehdi, Mahbobe Kabiri, and Hamideh Saadatmanesh. "Impact of socio-economic infrastructure investments on income inequality in Iran." Journal of Policy Modeling 42, no. 5 (2020): 1146-1168.
(3) Yang, Fang, Sheng Zhang, and Chuanwang Sun. "Energy infrastructure investment and regional inequality: Evidence from China's power grid." Science of The Total Environment 749 (2020): 142384.
(4) Medeiros, Victor, Rafael Saulo Marques Ribeiro, and Pedro Vasconcelos Maia do Amaral. "Infrastructure and household poverty in Brazil: A regional approach using multilevel models." World Development 137 (2021): 105118.
(5) Wu, Rongwei, Degang Yang, Jiefang Dong, Lu Zhang, and Fuqiang Xia. "Regional inequality in China based on NPP-VIIRS night-time light imagery." Remote Sensing 10, no. 2 (2018): 240.
(6) Wu, Shuo-sheng, Xiaomin Qiu, and Le Wang. "Population estimation methods in GIS and remote sensing: A review." GIScience & Remote Sensing 42, no. 1 (2005): 80-96.
(7) Watmough, Gary R., Charlotte LJ Marcinko, Clare Sullivan, Kevin Tschirhart, Patrick K. Mutuo, Cheryl A. Palm, and Jens-Christian Svenning. "Socioecologically informed use of remote sensing data to predict rural household poverty." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 4 (2019): 1213-1218.
(8) Oshri, Barak, Annie Hu, Peter Adelson, Xiao Chen, Pascaline Dupas, Jeremy Weinstein, Marshall Burke, David Lobell, and Stefano Ermon. "Infrastructure quality assessment in africa using satellite imagery and deep learning." In Proceedings of the 24th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining, pp. 616-625. 2018.
10.2. By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status     B 2 B 2     B 2 See 5.1 and 6.a.
10.3. Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard     B 2 B 2     B 2 See 5.1 and 6.a.
10.4. Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively achieve greater equality                      
10.5. Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and strengthen the implementation of such regulations                 B 4  
10.6. Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-making in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective, credible, accountable and legitimate institutions                      
10.7. Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies                      
10.a. Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade Organization agreements                      
10.b. Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 High-quality infrastructure has been a primary factor of the attractiveness for foreign investment. EO provides data of natural resources, the quantity and quality of infrastructure, and socio-economic conditions (Jensen et al 1999; Warth et al 2020) for the least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries to improve infrastructure systems and the attractiveness of the states, where these critical indicators data may be difficult to be collected, monitored and assessed.
(1) Jensen, John R., and Dave C. Cowen. "Remote sensing of urban/suburban infrastructure and socio-economic attributes." Photogrammetric engineering and remote sensing 65 (1999): 611-622.
(2) Warth, Gebhard, Andreas Braun, Oliver Assmann, Kevin Fleckenstein, and Volker Hochschild. "Prediction of socio-economic indicators for urban planning using VHR satellite imagery and spatial analysis." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1730.
10.c. By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent                 B 4  
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable 11.1. By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums A 1 A 1 A 1 A 1 A 1 The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Proportion of urban population living in slums", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 11.1.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
11.2. By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons B 2 A 2         B 2 EO and spatial network models have been widely applied in analysing the transport accessibility of people to facilities (Gannon et al 1997; Velaga et al 2012; Song et al 2018). Energy and digital communication technologies enables safe, affordable, and accessible transport systems (Thatcher et al 2019).
(1) Gannon, Colin A., and Zhi Liu. Poverty and transport. No. TWU-30. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1997.
(2) Velaga, Nagendra R., Mark Beecroft, John D. Nelson, David Corsar, and Peter Edwards. "Transport poverty meets the digital divide: accessibility and connectivity in rural communities." Journal of Transport Geography 21 (2012): 102-112.
(3) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
4) Thacker, Scott, Daniel Adshead, Marianne Fay, Stephane Hallegatte, Mark Harvey, Hendrik Meller, Nicholas O’Regan, Julie Rozenberg, Graham Watkins, and Jim W. Hall. "Infrastructure for sustainable development." Nature Sustainability 2, no. 4 (2019): 324-331.
11.3. By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 Sustainable urbanization requires all sectors of infrastructure. Among the targets of SDG 11.3, EO can provide timely, multi-scale, and accurate information of they dynamics of population, land use, and urban development (Wu et al 2005; Levin et al 2020; Kuffer et al 2020; Wang et al 2020; Tonne et al 2021).
(1) Wu, Shuo-sheng, Xiaomin Qiu, and Le Wang. "Population estimation methods in GIS and remote sensing: A review." GIScience & Remote Sensing 42, no. 1 (2005): 80-96.
(2) Wang, Le, Chunyuan Diao, George Xian, Dameng Yin, Ying Lu, Shengyuan Zou, and Tyler A. Erickson. "A summary of the special issue on remote sensing of land change science with Google earth engine." (2020): 112002.
(3) Levin, Noam, Christopher CM Kyba, Qingling Zhang, Alejandro Sánchez de Miguel, Miguel O. Román, Xi Li, Boris A. Portnov et al. "Remote sensing of night lights: A review and an outlook for the future." Remote Sensing of Environment 237 (2020): 111443.
(4) Kuffer, Monika, Dana R. Thomson, Gianluca Boo, Ron Mahabir, Taïs Grippa, Sabine Vanhuysse, Ryan Engstrom et al. "The role of earth observation in an integrated deprived area mapping “System” for low-to-middle income countries." Remote Sensing 12, no. 6 (2020): 982.
(5) Tonne, Cathryn, Linda Adair, Deepti Adlakha, Isabelle Anguelovski, Kristine Belesova, Maximilian Berger, Christa Brelsford et al. "Defining pathways to healthy sustainable urban development." Environment International 146 (2021): 106236.
11.4. Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world's cultural and natural heritage         B 2         EO monitors water related risks, such as flood, rainfall, and drought, that can affect heritage. Remote sensing, light detection and ranging (LiDAR), and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) have also been widely applied in heritage monitoring, modelling, and protection (Elfadaly et al 2020; Trier et al 2021; Ulvi 2021).
(1) Trier, Øivind Due, Jarle Hamar Reksten, and Kristian Løseth. "Automated mapping of cultural heritage in Norway from airborne lidar data using faster R-CNN." International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 95 (2021): 102241.
(2) Elfadaly, Abdelaziz, and Rosa Lasaponara. "Cultural heritage management using remote sensing data and GIS techniques around the archaeological area of ancient Jeddah in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia." Sustainability 12, no. 1 (2020): 240.
(3) Ulvi, Ali. "Documentation, Three-Dimensional (3D) Modelling and visualization of cultural heritage by using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanners." International Journal of Remote Sensing 42, no. 6 (2021): 1994-2021.
11.5. By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations B 2 B 2 A 2 B 2 B 2 EO can predict, monitor, and assess natural hazards that threaten infrastructure, and also can provide data and tools for the reconstruction of infrastructure systems after natural hazards (Tralli et al 2005; Guo et al 2010; Koks et al 2019).
(1) Koks, Elco E., Julie Rozenberg, Conrad Zorn, Mersedeh Tariverdi, Michalis Vousdoukas, S. A. Fraser, J. W. Hall, and Stephane Hallegatte. "A global multi-hazard risk analysis of road and railway infrastructure assets." Nature communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 1-11.
(2) Guo, Huadong, Liangyun Liu, Liping Lei, Yanhong Wu, Liwei Li, Bing Zhang, Zhengli Zuo, and Zhen Li. "Dynamic analysis of the Wenchuan Earthquake disaster and reconstruction with 3-year remote sensing data." International Journal of Digital Earth 3, no. 4 (2010): 355-364.
(3) Tralli, David M., Ronald G. Blom, Victor Zlotnicki, Andrea Donnellan, and Diane L. Evans. "Satellite remote sensing of earthquake, volcano, flood, landslide and coastal inundation hazards." ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 59, no. 4 (2005): 185-198.
11.6. By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management A 1 A 1 A 1 A 1     The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter in cities, urban population", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 11.6.2 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
11.7. By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities     B 2 B 2 B 2     EO can be used for monitoring urban green spaces and estimating population exposure to green spaces (Helbich et al 2019; Lu 2019; Wicht et al 2019).
(1) Wicht, Marzena, and Monika Kuffer. "The continuous built-up area extracted from ISS night-time lights to compare the amount of urban green areas across European cities." European Journal of Remote Sensing 52, no. sup2 (2019): 58-73.
(2) Helbich, Marco, Yao Yao, Ye Liu, Jinbao Zhang, Penghua Liu, and Ruoyu Wang. "Using deep learning to examine street view green and blue spaces and their associations with geriatric depression in Beijing, China." Environment international 126 (2019): 107-117.
(3) Lu, Yi. "Using Google Street View to investigate the association between street greenery and physical activity." Landscape and Urban Planning 191 (2019): 103435.
11.a. Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, per-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 National and regional development require all sectors of infrastructure (See 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, and 11.3).
11.b. By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels B 2 B 2 A 2 B 2 B 2 See 11.5 and 11.a.
11.c. Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials     B 2         B 2 EO supports both physical and virtual access to materials, financial supports and technological assistance for the least developed countries through transport (Song et al 2018) and digital communications (Abdelwahab et al 2014), respectively.
(1) Abdelwahab, Sherif, Bechir Hamdaoui, Mohsen Guizani, and Ammar Rayes. "Enabling smart cloud services through remote sensing: An internet of everything enabler." IEEE Internet of Things Journal 1, no. 3 (2014): 276-288.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns 12.1. Implement the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries B 3 B 3 B 3 A 3 B 3 EO can be used to estimate carbon emissions of sustainable consumption and production (Duren et al 2012; Wang et al 2020).
(1) Duren, Riley M., and Charles E. Miller. "Measuring the carbon emissions of megacities." Nature Climate Change 2, no. 8 (2012): 560-562.
(2) Wang, Gengzhe, Qi Han, and Bauke de Vries. "A geographic carbon emission estimating framework on the city scale." Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020): 118793.
12.2. By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 EO directly supports the monitoring, assessment and management of natural resources (Verbyla 1995; Pettorelli 2019).
(1) Verbyla, David L. Satellite remote sensing of natural resources. Vol. 4. CRC Press, 1995.
(2) Pettorelli, Nathalie. Satellite remote sensing and the management of natural resources. Oxford University Press, 2019.
12.3. By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses B 2 B 2     A 2 B 2 EO supports data and knowledge for the life cycle management of food waste (Al-Hanbali et al 2011; Singh 2019).
(1) Singh, Ajay. "Remote sensing and GIS applications for municipal waste management." Journal of environmental management 243 (2019): 22-29.
(2) Al-Hanbali, Ahmad, Bayan Alsaaideh, and Akihiko Kondoh. "Using GIS-based weighted linear combination analysis and remote sensing techniques to select optimum solid waste disposal sites within Mafraq City, Jordan." Journal of Geographic Information System 3, no. 04 (2011): 267.
12.4. By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment B 2 B 2 A 2 A 2     EO can be used to monitor and estimate the environmental impacts of all wastes, including the impacts on air, water, soil, and human health (Yang et al 2018; Wei et al 2018; Singh 2019; Cusworth et al 2020).
(1) Cusworth, Daniel H., Riley M. Duren, Andrew K. Thorpe, Eugene Tseng, David Thompson, Abhinav Guha, Sally Newman, Kelsey T. Foster, and Charles E. Miller. "Using remote sensing to detect, validate, and quantify methane emissions from California solid waste operations." Environmental Research Letters 15, no. 5 (2020): 054012.
(2) Singh, Ajay. "Remote sensing and GIS applications for municipal waste management." Journal of environmental management 243 (2019): 22-29.
(3) Wei, Lianhuan, Yun Zhang, Zhanguo Zhao, Xiaoyu Zhong, Shanjun Liu, Yachun Mao, and Jiayu Li. "Analysis of mining waste dump site stability based on multiple remote sensing technologies." Remote Sensing 10, no. 12 (2018): 2025.
(4) Yang, Hong, Mingguo Ma, Julian R. Thompson, and Roger J. Flower. "Waste management, informal recycling, environmental pollution and public health." J Epidemiol Community Health 72, no. 3 (2018): 237-243.
12.5. By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse B 2 B 2     A 2 B 2 EO provides data and tools for energy, transport, and digital communication infrastructure used for decreasing waste generation (Scarlat et al 2015; Tanguy et al 2016; Xiao et al 2020).
(1) Scarlat, Nicolae, Vincenzo Motola, Jean François Dallemand, Fabio Monforti-Ferrario, and Linus Mofor. "Evaluation of energy potential of municipal solid waste from African urban areas." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015): 1269-1286.
(2) Xiao, Huaping, Zhihua Tang, Yunkai Tan, and Linzi Yi. "The Spatial Distribution and Potential for Energy Recovery of Urban-Rural Wastes in Guangdong Province, Southern China." In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 555, no. 1, p. 012042. IOP Publishing, 2020.
(3) Tanguy, Audrey, Mathias Glaus, Valérie Laforest, Jonathan Villot, and Robert Hausler. "A spatial analysis of hierarchical waste transport structures under growing demand." Waste Management & Research 34, no. 10 (2016): 1064-1073.
12.6. Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle                      
12.7. Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities                      
12.8. By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature                 B 4  
12.a. Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production                 B 2 EO can be used to estimate the renewable electricity-generating capacity (van Zalk et al 2018).
(1) van Zalk, John, and Paul Behrens. "The spatial extent of renewable and non-renewable power generation: A review and meta-analysis of power densities and their application in the US." Energy Policy 123 (2018): 83-91.
12.b. Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products                      
12.c. Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities B 2                 EO can be used to estimate environmental impacts of fossil fuel (Gloor et al 2018).
(1) Gloor, Emanuel, Chris Wilson, Martyn P. Chipperfield, Frederic Chevallier, Wolfgang Buermann, Hartmut Boesch, Robert Parker et al. "Tropical land carbon cycle responses to 2015/16 El Niño as recorded by atmospheric greenhouse gas and remote sensing data." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, no. 1760 (2018): 20170302.
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impactsa 13.1. Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries B 1 B 1 A 1 B 1 B 1 The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Number of deaths and missing persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 13.1.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
13.2. Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 EO has been widely applied in climate change studies (Yang et al 2013), which are implemented in national strategy development for all sectors of infrastructure.
(1) Yang, Jun, Peng Gong, Rong Fu, Minghua Zhang, Jingming Chen, Shunlin Liang, Bing Xu, Jiancheng Shi, and Robert Dickinson. "The role of satellite remote sensing in climate change studies." Nature climate change 3, no. 10 (2013): 875-883.
13.3. Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning     B 2         B 2 EO supports both physical and virtual access to education, training, information, and technological assistance of climate change mitigation and early warning for residents through transport (Song et al 2018) and digital communications (Abdelwahab et al 2014), respectively.
(1) Abdelwahab, Sherif, Bechir Hamdaoui, Mohsen Guizani, and Ammar Rayes. "Enabling smart cloud services through remote sensing: An internet of everything enabler." IEEE Internet of Things Journal 1, no. 3 (2014): 276-288.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
13.a. Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible                      
13.b. Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities                 B 2 EO supports digital communications for local communities to enhance the capacity in climate change management (Kelman et al 2009).
(1) Kelman, Ilan, and Jennifer J. West. "Climate change and small island developing states: a critical review." Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 5, no. 1 (2009): 1-16.
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development 14.1. By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution B 2 B 2 A 2 A 2     EO has been widely used to monitor, predict, and manage marine pollution (Clark 1993; Davaasuren et al 2018; Hafeez et al 2018).
(1) Clark, C. D. "Satellite remote sensing of marine pollution." International Journal of Remote Sensing 14, no. 16 (1993): 2985-3004.
(2) Hafeez, Sidrah, Man Sing Wong, Sawaid Abbas, Coco YT Kwok, Janet Nichol, Kwon Ho Lee, Danling Tang, and Lilian Pun. "Detection and monitoring of marine pollution using remote sensing technologies." Monitoring of Marine Pollution (2018).
(3) Davaasuren, Narangerel, Armando Marino, Carl Boardman, Matteo Alparone, Ferdinanda Nunziata, Nicolas Ackermann, and Irena Hajnsek. "Detecting microplastics pollution in world oceans using SAR remote sensing." In IGARSS 2018-2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, pp. 938-941. IEEE, 2018.
14.2. By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans                      
14.3. Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels B 1                 The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 14.3.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
14.4. By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics                 B 1 The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels (not overexploited)", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 14.4.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
14.5. By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information         A 1         The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Coverage of protected areas in relation to marine areas (Exclusive Economic Zones)", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 14.5.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
14.6. By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation                      
14.7. By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism                      
14.a. Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries                 B 4  
14.b. Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets B 3 B 3         B 3 EO can be used to estimate and manage coastal and marine natural resources (McCarthy et al 2017).
(1) McCarthy, Matthew J., Kaitlyn E. Colna, Mahmoud M. El-Mezayen, Abdiel E. Laureano-Rosario, Pablo Méndez-Lázaro, Daniel B. Otis, Gerardo Toro-Farmer, Maria Vega-Rodriguez, and Frank E. Muller-Karger. "Satellite remote sensing for coastal management: A review of successful applications." Environmental management 60, no. 2 (2017): 323-339.
14.c. Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in UNCLOS, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of The Future We Want                      
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss 15.1. By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1     The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Forest area as a proportion of total land area", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 15.1.1 (Estoque 2020). EO can directly monitor natural resources and land ecosystems (Ishtiaque et al 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
(2) Ishtiaque, Asif, Arif Masrur, Yasin Wahid Rabby, Tasnuba Jerin, and Ashraf Dewan. "Remote sensing-based research for monitoring progress towards SDG 15 in Bangladesh: A review." Remote Sensing 12, no. 4 (2020): 691.
15.2. By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally B 1                 The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Proportion of forest area under a long-term management plan", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 15.2.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
15.3. By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world B 1     B 1         The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 15.3.1 (Estoque 2020). In addition, EO, infrastructure, and other technologies are required to be integrated to deliver SDG 15.3 (Prince 2019).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
(2) Prince, Stephen D. "Challenges for remote sensing of the Sustainable Development Goal SDG 15.3. 1 productivity indicator." Remote Sensing of Environment 234 (2019): 111428.
15.4. By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development     B 1             The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Average proportion of Mountain Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) covered by protected areas", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 15.4.1, and "Mountain Green Cover Index", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 15.4.2 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
15.5. Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species B 2                 EO can monitor the degradation of natural habitats, such as grassland, wetland, forest, and coastal ecosystems (Mitchell et al 2017; Zhou et al 2017; Shen et al 2019).
(1) Zhou, Wei, Han Yang, Lu Huang, Chun Chen, Xiaosong Lin, Zhongjun Hu, and Jianlong Li. "Grassland degradation remote sensing monitoring and driving factors quantitative assessment in China from 1982 to 2010." Ecological Indicators 83 (2017): 303-313.
(2) Mitchell, Anthea L., Ake Rosenqvist, and Brice Mora. "Current remote sensing approaches to monitoring forest degradation in support of countries measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) systems for REDD+." Carbon balance and management 12, no. 1 (2017): 1-22.
(3) Shen, Ge, Xiuchun Yang, Yunxiang Jin, Bin Xu, and Qingbo Zhou. "Remote sensing and evaluation of the wetland ecological degradation process of the Zoige Plateau Wetland in China." Ecological Indicators 104 (2019): 48-58.
15.6. Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed                      
15.7. Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products                 B 2 Satellite tracking, such as Beidou and GPS trackers, and unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) have been used to monitor wild animals (Linchant et al 2015; Huang et al 2021).
(1) Huang, Tian, Libo Zhou, and Minghui Zhou. "Key Technologies and Applications of Wild Animal Satellite Tracking." In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1757, no. 1, p. 012180. IOP Publishing, 2021.
(2) Linchant, Julie, Jonathan Lisein, Jean Semeki, Philippe Lejeune, and Cédric Vermeulen. "Are unmanned aircraft systems (UAS s) the future of wildlife monitoring? A review of accomplishments and challenges." Mammal Review 45, no. 4 (2015): 239-252.
15.8. By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species                      
15.9. By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts                      
15.a. Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems                      
15.b. Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation                      
15.c. Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities                      
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels 16.1. Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere B 3                 EO can reveal public lighting for people feeling safe when walking alone around the area they live (Levin et al 2020).
(1) Levin, Noam, Christopher CM Kyba, Qingling Zhang, Alejandro Sánchez de Miguel, Miguel O. Román, Xi Li, Boris A. Portnov et al. "Remote sensing of night lights: A review and an outlook for the future." Remote Sensing of Environment 237 (2020): 111443.
16.2. End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children                      
16.3. Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all     B 3             EO supports transport accessibility of police to all regions and communites (Gorman et al 2001; Peterson et al 2010).
(1) Peterson, Ruth D., and Lauren J. Krivo. Divergent social worlds: Neighborhood crime and the racial-spatial divide. Russell Sage Foundation, 2010.
(2) Gorman, Dennis M., Paul W. Speer, Paul J. Gruenewald, and Erich W. Labouvie. "Spatial dynamics of alcohol availability, neighborhood structure and violent crime." Journal of studies on alcohol 62, no. 5 (2001): 628-636.
16.4. By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime                 B 4  
16.5. Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms                      
16.6. Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels B 3 B 3 B 3 B 3 B 3 All sectors of public infrastructure are critical evidence of institutional effectiveness, and EO can reveal the performance of public infrastructure (See 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, and 11.3).
16.7. Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels     B 3         B 3 EO supports both physical and virtual access of residents to participation in institutions through transport (Song et al 2018) and digital communications (Abdelwahab et al 2014), respectively.
(1) Abdelwahab, Sherif, Bechir Hamdaoui, Mohsen Guizani, and Ammar Rayes. "Enabling smart cloud services through remote sensing: An internet of everything enabler." IEEE Internet of Things Journal 1, no. 3 (2014): 276-288.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
16.8. Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance     B 3         B 3 See 16.7.
16.9. By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration                      
16.10. Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements     B 3         B 3 See 16.7.
16.a. Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime                      
16.b. Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable development                      
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development 17.1. Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection                 B 4  
17.2. Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of ODA/GNI to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries; ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries                      
17.3. Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources                      
17.4. Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring, as appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress                      
17.5. Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries                      
17.6. Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism                 B 1 The EO-based indicator has been available in the Global SDG Indicators Database (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/): "Fixed Internet broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, by speed (per 100 inhabitants)", which is the indicator of SDG indicator 17.6.1 (Estoque 2020).
(1) Estoque, Ronald C. "A review of the sustainability concept and the state of SDG monitoring using remote sensing." Remote Sensing 12, no. 11 (2020): 1770.
17.7. Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 EO has been widely applied in the association between environment and infrastructure (Song et al 2018; 2021). EO can be used to evaluate environmental performance of all sectors of infrastructure in terms of the implementations of environmentally sound technologies.
(1) Song, Yongze, Graeme Wright, Peng Wu, Dominique Thatcher, Tom McHugh, Qindong Li, Shuk Jin Li, and Xiangyu Wang. "Segment-based spatial analysis for assessing road infrastructure performance using monitoring observations and remote sensing data." Remote Sensing 10, no. 11 (2018): 1696.
(2) Song, Yongze, Dominique Thatcher, Qindong Li, Tom McHugh, and Peng Wu. "Developing sustainable road infrastructure performance indicators using a model-driven fuzzy spatial multi-criteria decision making method." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2021): 110538.
17.8. Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology                 A 4  
17.9. Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-building in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the sustainable development goals, including through North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation                      
17.10. Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion of negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda                      
17.11. Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to doubling the least developed countries' share of global exports by 2020     B 3         B 3 EO supports both physical and virtual access of developing countries to international markets through transport (Song et al 2018) and digital communications (Abdelwahab et al 2014), respectively.
(1) Abdelwahab, Sherif, Bechir Hamdaoui, Mohsen Guizani, and Ammar Rayes. "Enabling smart cloud services through remote sensing: An internet of everything enabler." IEEE Internet of Things Journal 1, no. 3 (2014): 276-288.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
17.12. Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization decisions, including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from least developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access                 B 4  
17.13. Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and policy coherence                      
17.14. Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development                      
17.15. Respect each country's policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development                      
17.16. Enhance the global partnership for sustainable development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources, to support the achievement of the sustainable development goals in all countries, in particular developing countries                      
17.17. Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships                      
17.18. By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts     B 2         B 2 EO supports both physical and virtual access to developing countries for providing supports through transport (Song et al 2018) and digital communications (Abdelwahab et al 2014), respectively.
(1) Abdelwahab, Sherif, Bechir Hamdaoui, Mohsen Guizani, and Ammar Rayes. "Enabling smart cloud services through remote sensing: An internet of everything enabler." IEEE Internet of Things Journal 1, no. 3 (2014): 276-288.
(2) Song, Yongze, Yi Tan, Yimeng Song, Peng Wu, Jack CP Cheng, Mi Jeong Kim, and Xiangyu Wang. "Spatial and temporal variations of spatial population accessibility to public hospitals: A case study of rural–urban comparison." GIScience & remote sensing 55, no. 5 (2018): 718-744.
17.19. By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support statistical capacity-building in developing countries     B 2         B 2 See 17.18.

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